تعريفات mba cma cia pmp - منتدى المحاسبين المصريين

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تعريفات mba cma cia pmp

Post graduate studies

1. MBA: -Master of Business Administration

Is a master's degree in business administration, which attracts people from a wide range of academic disciplines? The MBA designation originated in the United States, emerging from the late 19th century as the country industrialized and companies sought out scientific approaches to management. The MBA degree has since achieved worldwide recognition. .
1.1. Mini MBA

2. The degree of Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.)

Is a research doctorate. The D.B.A. often requires coursework beyond the masters' level in addition to research that results in a dissertation that contributes to business theory or practice.

3. CMA: -Certified Management Accountant

Is a professional designation awarded by various professional bodies around the world.
The CMA designation is a post-nominal award issued to individuals who have achieved peer-based criteria of professional competency in the field of Management Accounting. Management accounting qualifications differ from those such as the ACA or CPA "Chartered" or "Public" accounting qualifications in a number of ways. Management accountants are primarily focused on internal cost measures and accounting for management review, whereas ACA/CPA specialists are focused on reporting financial results to external bodies such as tax departments, capital markets, investors and others.
The CMA qualification is offered in Australia, Canada, the United States, and many other developed countries. CMAs are granted a certificate from a professional body like the Institute of Certified Management Accountants (ICMA), the Institute of Management Accountants (IMA), provided that they pass a rigorous examination, and meet the necessary educational and practical experience requirements. Due to their non-statutory status in the United States, CMAs in that country generally provide their services directly to their employers rather than to the public. American CMAs may also provide services to the public, but do so to a much lesser extent than a Certified Public Accountant (CPA).
In the United States, the CMA credentials differ significantly from the CPA designation. More than 80% of accounting professionals in the U.S. work within organizations, building quality financial practices into the organization through decision support, planning, and control over the organization’s value-creating operations. For these managerial finance and accounting professionals, the CMA may be more appropriate as a best selection. Many professional accountants hold both CPA and CMA designations.
The profession of accounting in Canada also includes a Certified Management Accountant (CMA) designation. Canadian CMAs belong to the Society of Management Accountants of Canada. A similar title, Chartered Management Accountant, exists in the United Kingdom and is awarded to members of the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants. Other professional organizations which specialize in management accounting include the Institute of Cost and Works Accountants of India , Institute of Cost and Management Accountants of Pakistan.
In order to earn the CMA designation in Canada, Australia, or the United States, an accountant must have mastered a comprehensive body of knowledge by demonstrating six key skill levels -- knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation -- in the following areas:
· Business Analysis (economics, internal controls, quantitative methods, financial statement analysis)
· Management Accounting and Reporting (budget preparation, cost management, performance measurement, external financial reporting)
· Strategic Management (strategic planning, corporate finance, decision analysis, investment decision analysis)
· Business Applications (the entire above, plus organization management, behavioral issues, ethical considerations) .

4. CIA: - Certified Internal Auditor: -

The CIA is the primary professional designation offered by The IIA. The CIA designation is a globally recognized certification for internal auditors and is a standard by which individuals may demonstrate their competency and professionalism in the internal audit field. In order to earn the CIA, one must possess a U.S. college degree or equivalent academic qualification from another country (work experience cannot be substituted for the degree), have a professional reference, pass a four-part exam (exemptions may be secured from part four via other relevant professional qualifications) , and complete 24 months in the internal audit profession.
Earning the CIA qualification is intended to demonstrate a professional knowledge of the internal audit profession. CIAs are required to take continuing education courses.
Like the Chartered Certified Accountant (ACCA) qualification, and unlike local qualifications such as Certified Public Accountant or Chartered Accountant, the CIA is a global designation. These standards are expected to be obeyed globally by IIA members, and by internal audit functions claiming to work to IIA standards, unless local laws or regulations make it impossible.

5. CPA Certified Public Accountant (CPA)

Is the statutory title of qualified accountants in the United States who have passed the Uniform Certified Public Accountant Examination and have met additional state education and experience requirements for certification as a CPA. In most U.S. states, only CPAs who are licensed are able to provide to the public attestation (including auditing) opinions on financial statements. The exceptions to this rule are Arizona, Kansas, North Carolina and Ohio where, although the "CPA" designation is restricted, the practice of auditing is not.
Many states have a lower tier of accountant qualification (below that of CPA), usually entitled "Public Accountant" (with designators letters "PA"). However the majority of states have closed the designation "Public Accountant" to new entrants, with only about 10 states continuing to offer the designation. Many PAs belong to the National Society of (Public) Accountants.
Many states prohibit the use of the designations "Certified Public Accountant" or "Public Accountant" (or the abbreviations "CPA" or "PA") by a person who is not certified as a CPA or PA in that state.[1] As a result, in many circumstances, an out-of-state CPA is restricted from using the CPA designation or designators letters until a license or certificate from that state is obtained.
5.1. Certified Practicing Accountant (CPA)

Is the title used by members of the CPA Australia accountancy association. Accountants practicing in Australia have the choice of becoming members of CPA Australia (and hence becoming a CPA), joining the Institute of Chartered Accountants of Australia (and becoming a Chartered Accountant or "CA") or the National Institute of Accountants (and becoming a Professional National Accountant or "PNA").

6. Chartered Financial Analyst (CFA)

Is an international professional designation offered by the CFA Institute of USA (formerly known as AIMR) to financial analysts who complete a series of three examinations. In order to become a "CFA Charterholder" candidates must pass all three six-hour exams, having already completed either a bachelor's degree or four years of professional work experience. CFA charter holders are also obligated to adhere to a strict Code of Ethics and Standards governing their professional conduct.

7. Six Sigma

Is a business management strategy, originally developed by Motorola, that today enjoys widespread application in many sectors of industry.
Six Sigma seeks to identify and remove the causes of defects and errors in manufacturing and business processes.[1] It uses a set of quality management methods, including statistical methods, and creates a special infrastructure of people within the organization ("Black Belts" etc.) who are experts in these methods.[1] Each Six Sigma project carried out within an organization follows a defined sequence of steps and has quantified financial targets (cost reduction or profit increase).

8. PMP: - A project management plan

As defined in the PMBOK Guide Third Edition, is a formal, approved document that defines how the project is executed, monitored and controlled. It may be summary or detailed and may be composed of one or more subsidiary management plans and other planning documents. The objective of a project management plan is to define the approach to be used by the Project team to deliver the intended project management scope of the project.
The project manager creates the project management plan following input from the project team and key stakeholders. The plan should be agreed and approved by at least the project team and its key stakeholders.

8.1. Project Management Professional

Is properly expressed as the credential PMP. The credentialing agency is the Project Management Institute ([1] PMI). This credential is obtained by gaining a certification in project management through the completion of PMI-certified training and examination. PMP training and examination material comes from the Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (or PMBOK), the Fourth Edition of which was published in December 2008. Most exam questions relate to PMI's project quality standards, which are documented in the PMBOK. The PMP credential undergoes rigorous validation by ISO, and the PMBOK guide is widely regarded as the industry standard for Project Management. It has been adopted as the single standard for project management by agencies such as NASA.
PMP (Project Management Professional) is one of five concentrations offered by PMI in the study of Project Management:

8.1.1.CAPM Certified Associate in Project Management:

This certification is obtained after passing the CAPM Exam

8.1.2.PMP Project Management Professional:

This certification is obtained after passing the PMP Exam

8.1.3.PgMP Program Management Professional:

This certification is obtained after passing the PgMP Exam

8.1.4.PMI RMP PMI Risk Management Professional:

This certification is obtained after passing the PMI-RMP Exam

8.1.5. PMI SP PMI Scheduling Professional:

This certification is obtained after passing the PMI-SP Exam.

9. Incoterms or international commercial terms

Are a series of international sales terms widely used throughout the world. They are used to divide transaction costs and responsibilities between buyer and seller and reflect state-of-the- art transportation practices. They closely correspond to the U.N. Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods.

9.1. International commercial law

Is the body of law that governs international sale transactions.[1] A transaction will qualify to be international if elements of more than one country are involved.[2]
Since World War II international trade has grown extensively, seeing the increasing importance of international commercial law. It plays a vital role in world development, particularly through the integration of world markets.
Recently, International Commerce law has played a role in many new market fraud cases. A prime example is Fortune Power LLC. a group that is owned by Anson Ye, a one man company, that is currently under investigation by the Chinese Interior Ministry for one of the first major counts of International Fraud in China to reach local news in New York. It is expected to reach a point where Mr. Ye and his wife will be arrested and sent to jail eventually to set an example to other would be fraudsters in China.
Lex mercatoria refers to that part of international commercial law which is unwritten, including customary commercial law; customary rules of evidence and procedure; and general principles of commercial law.
9.2. International commercial contracts

Are sale transaction agreements made between parties from different countries.
The methods of entering the foreign market with choice made balancing costs, control and risk, include:
· Export directly.
· Use of foreign agent to sell and distribute.
· Use of foreign distributor to on-sell to local customers.
· Manufacture products in the foreign country by either setting up business or by acquiring a foreign subsidiary
· License to a local producer.
· Enter into a joint venture with a foreign entity.
· Appoint a franchisee in the foreign country.

10. Human resources
Is a term with which some organizations describe the combination of traditionally administrative personnel functions with performance, Employee Relations and resource planning. The field draws upon concepts developed in Industrial/Organiza tional Psychology. Human resources has at least two related interpretations depending on context. The original usage derives from political economy and economics, where it was traditionally called labor, one of four factors of production. The more common usage within corporations and businesses refers to the individuals within the firm, and to the portion of the firm's organization that deals with hiring, firing, training, and other personnel issues. This article addresses both definitions.
The objective of human resources is to maximize the return on investment from the organization' s human capital and minimize financial risk. It is the responsibility of human resource managers to conduct these activities in an effective, legal, fair, and consistent manner.

10.1. Human resource management
· Serves these key functions:
· Selection
· Training and Development
· Performance Evaluation and Management
· Promotions
· Redundancy
· Industrial and Employee Relations
· Record keeping of all personal data.
· Compensation, pensions, bonuses etc in liaison with Payroll
· Confidential advice to internal 'customers' in relation to problems at work
· Career development
Modern analysis emphasizes that human beings are not "commodities" or "resources", but are creative and social beings in a productive enterprise. The 2000 revision of ISO 9001 in contrast requires to identify the processes, their sequence and interaction, and to define and communicate responsibilities and authorities. In general, heavily unionized nations such as France and Germany have adopted and encouraged such job descriptions especially within trade unions. One view of this trend is that a strong social consensus on political economy and a good social welfare system facilitates labor mobility and tends to make the entire economy more productive, as labor can move from one enterprise to another with little controversy or difficulty in adapting.
An important controversy regarding labor mobility illustrates the broader philosophical issue with usage of the phrase "human resources": governments of developing nations often regard developed nations that encourage immigration or "guest workers" as appropriating human capital that is rightfully part of the developing nation and required to further its growth as a civilization. They argue that this appropriation is similar to colonial commodity fiat wherein a colonizing European power would define an arbitrary price for natural resources, extracting which diminished national natural capital.
The debate regarding "human resources" versus human capital thus in many ways echoes the debate regarding natural resources versus natural capital. Over time the United Nations have come to more generally support the developing nations' point of view, and have requested significant offsetting "foreign aid" contributions so that a developing nation losing human capital does not lose the capacity to continue to train new people in trades, professions, and the arts.
An extreme version of this view is that historical inequities such as African slavery must be compensated by current developed nations, which benefited from stolen "human resources" as they were developing. This is an extremely controversial view, but it echoes the general theme of converting human capital to "human resources" and thus greatly diminishing its value to the host society, i.e. "Africa", as it is put to narrow imitative use as "labor" in the using society.
In a series of reports of the UN Secretary-General to the General Assembly over the last decade [e.g. A/56/162 (2001)], a broad inter sect oral approach to developing human resourcefulness has been outlined as a priority for socio-economic development and particularly anti-poverty strategies. This calls for strategic and integrated public policies, for example in education, health, and employment sectors that promote occupational skills, knowledge and performance enhancement.
In the very narrow context of corporate "human resources", there is a contrasting pull to reflect and require workplace diversity that echoes the diversity of a global customer base. Foreign language and culture skills, ingenuity, humor, and careful listening, are examples of traits that such programs typically require. It would appear that these evidence a general shift to the human capital point of view, and an acknowledgment that human beings do contribute much more to a productive enterprise than "work": they bring their character, their ethics, their creativity, their social connections, and in some cases even their pets and children, and alter the character of a workplace. The term corporate culture is used to characterize such processes.
The traditional but extremely narrow context of hiring, firing, and job description is considered a 20th century anachronism. Most corporate organizations that compete in the modern global economy have adopted a view of human capital that mirrors the modern consensus as above. Some of these, in turn, deprecate the term "human resources" as useless.
In general the abstractions of macro-economics treat it this way - as it characterizes no mechanisms to represent choice or ingenuity. So one interpretation is that "firm-specific human capital" as defined in macro-economics is the modern and correct definition of "human resources" - and that this is inadequate to represent the contributions of "human resources" in any modern theory of political economy.

10.2. Human resource development
In terms of *** and selection it is important to consider carrying out a thorough job analysis to determine the level of skills/technical abilities, competencies, flexibility of the employee required etc. At this point it is important to consider both the internal and external factors that can have an effect on the recruitment of employees. The external factors are those out-with the powers of the organization and include issues such as current and future trends of the labor market e.g. skills, education level, government investment into industries etc. On the other hand internal influences are easier to control, predict and monitor, for example management styles or even the organizational culture.
In order to know the business environment in which any organization operates, three major trends should be considered:
Demographics – the characteristics of a population/workforc e, for example, age, gender or social class. This type of trend may have an effect in relation to pension offerings, insurance packages etc.
Diversity – the variation within the population/workplac e. Changes in society now mean that a larger proportion of organizations are made up of "baby-boomers" or older employees in comparison to thirty years ago. Traditional advocates of "workplace diversity" simply advocate an employee base that is a mirror reflection of the make-up of society insofar as race, gender, ***ual orientation, etc.
Skills and qualifications – as industries move from manual to a more managerial professions so does the need for more highly skilled graduates. If the market is "tight" (i.e. not enough staff for the jobs), employers will have to compete for employees by offering financial rewards, community investment, etc.
In regard to how individuals respond to the changes in a labour market the following should be understood:
Geographical spread – how far is the job from the individual? The distance to travel to work should be in line with the pay offered by the organization and the transportation and infrastructure of the area will also be an influencing factor in deciding who will apply for a post.
Occupational structure – the norms and values of the different careers within an organization. Mahoney 1989 developed 3 different types of occupational structure namely craft (loyalty to the profession), organization career (promotion through the firm) and unstructured (lower/unskilled workers who work when needed).
Generational difference –different age categories of employees have certain characteristics, for example their behavior and their expectations of the organization.
While recruitment methods are wide and varied, it is important that the job is described correctly and that any personal specifications are stated. Job recruitment methods can be through job centers, employment agencies/consultant s, headhunting, and local/national newspapers. It is important that the correct media is chosen to ensure an appropriate response to the advertised post.
Human Resources Development is a framework for the expansion of human capital within an organization. Human Resources Development is a combination of Training and Education that ensures the continual improvement and growth of both the individual and the organization. Adam Smith states,” The capacities of individuals depended on their access to education”. Kelly D, 2001 Human Resources Development is the medium that drives the process between training and learning. Human Resources Development is not a defined object, but a series of organized processes, “with a specific learning objective” (Nadler,1984) Human Resources Development is the structure that allows for individual development, potentially satisfying the organization’s goals. The development of the individual will benefit both the individual and the organization. The Human Resources Development framework views employees, as an asset to the enterprise whose value will be enhanced by development, “Its primary focus is on growth and employee development…it emphasizes developing individual potential and skills” (Elwood, olton and Trott 1996) Human Resources Development can be in-room group training, tertiary or vocational courses or mentoring and coaching by senior employees with the aim for a desired outcome that will develop the individual’s performance. A successful Human Resources Development program will prepare the individual to undertake a higher level of work, “organized learning over a given period of time, to provide the possibility of performance change” (Nadler 1984). Human Resources Development is the framework that focuses on the organizations competencies at the first stage, training, and then developing the employee, through education, to satisfy the organizations long-term needs and the individuals’ career goals and employee value to their present and future employers. Human Resources Development can be defined simply as developing the most important section of any business its human resource by, “attaining or upgrading the skills and attitudes of employees at all levels in order to maximize the effectiveness of the enterprise” (Kelly 2001). The people within an organization are its human resource. Human Resources Development from a business perspective is not entirely focused on the individual’s growth and development, “development occurs to enhance the organization' s value, not solely for individual improvement. Individual education and development is a tool and a means to an end, not the end goal itself”. (Elwood F. Holton II, James W. Trott Jr)

10.3. Modern concept of human resources
Though human resources have been part of business and organizations since the first days of agriculture, the modern concept of human resources began in reaction to the efficiency focus of Taylorism in the early 1900s. By 1920, psychologists and employment experts in the United States started the human relations movement, which viewed workers in terms of their psychology and fit with companies, rather than as interchangeable parts. This movement grew throughout the middle of the 20th century, placing emphasis on how leadership, cohesion, and loyalty played important roles in organizational success. Although this view was increasingly challenged by more quantitatively rigorous and less "soft" management techniques in the 1960s and beyond, human resources had gained a permanent role within an organization.

10.4. HR Certification Institute
Overview

The HR Certification Institute offers four certifications for HR professionals:

· PHR (Professional in Human Resources)
· SPHR (Senior Professional in Human Resources)
· GPHR (Global Professional in Human Resources)
· PHR-CA and SPHR-CA (PHR with state certification in California and SPHR with state certification in California)
Certification is a voluntary action by a professional group to establish a system to grant recognition to professionals who have met a stated level of training and work experience. Certified individuals are usually issued a certificate attesting that they have met the standards of the credentialing organization and are entitled to make the public aware of their credentialed status, usually through the use of initials (i.e., PHR or SPHR) after their names.
Certifications differ from certificate programs because certifications include an experience component. Certificate programs, on the other hand, award certificates once a course of study has been completed and do not require previous work experience.
javascript:void( 0)Benefits

Want to learn more about the benefits of achieving your HR certification? View the video below to hear your fellow HR peers speak to the value of certification and how they have benefited from their credentials.

You may also download our certification flier for detailed information on the HR Certification Institute's certification exams.

10.5. EHRMA: - The Egyptian Human Resource Management Association (EHRMA)

Is a non-governmental and not for profit body that is dedicated to the service of the HR profession. It seeks to build awareness of the HR profession and to provide a stimulating environment to enrich and develop it.

Preparation Courses

1. GMAT The Graduate Management Admission Test

(GMAT, pronounced G-mat) is a computer adaptive standardized test in the English language for measuring aptitude to succeed academically in graduate business studies. Business schools commonly use the test as one of many selection criteria for admission into an MBA program. It is given at various locations around the world. Throughout North America and in many international locations, the GMAT is administered only via computer. In those international locations where an extensive network of computers has not yet been established, the GMAT is offered either at temporary computer-based testing centers on a limited schedule or as a paper-based test (given once or twice a year) at local testing centers. As of 2007, the fee to take the test is U.S. $250 worldwide.

2. The GRE Literature in English Test

Is a standardized test administered by the Educational Testing Service. It is intended to evaluate applicants seeking admission to a graduate program in English Studies. The test surveys a wide range of topics related to literature in English, but the focus is on works long accepted as part of the canon. Because of this and other reasons, some graduate programs do not require the test for applicants, as they are interested in accepting students who wish to do research in areas that are not as prominently evaluated by the subject test, such as women or minority writers, or literary theory. Included in the group of programs not requiring the test are some of the most prestigious, although other prominent programs continue to require it. One argument for continuing to require the test is that there are often numerous applicants to a given program with very high qualifications; the subject test offers admissions committees one more factor in measuring student competency. At any rate, while there is no longer broad consensus that everyone in English studies must be familiar with the same set of literary works, few would argue that knowledge of traditionally canonized texts could limit a student's ability to pursue English studies. Furthermore, most programs, even those most engaged in the decent ring of the traditional canon, still require broad coverage of areas, and the test may help reveal a student's overall coverage.

2.1. The GRE Graduate Record Examination subject test in mathematics

Is a standardized test created by the Educational Testing Service, and is designed to assess a candidate's potential for graduate or post-graduate study in the field of mathematics. It contains questions from many fields of mathematics. About 50% of the questions are on calculus (including multivariate calculus), 25% on linear algebra, and 25% on a broad variety of other topics typically encountered in undergraduate mathematics, such as abstract algebra, point-set topology, elementary number theory, probability and statistics, as well as real and complex analysis.
This exam, like all the GRE subject tests, is paper-based, as opposed to the GRE general test which is usually computer-based. It contains 66 questions, which are to be answered within 2 hours and 15 minutes. Scores on this exam are taken seriously by math PhD programs, as well as graduate programs. In fact, many universities have an undisclosed minimum score for admission to their programs.
Prior to October 2001, a significant percentage of students were achieving perfect scores on the exam, which made it difficult for competitive programs to differentiate between students in the upper percentiles. So the test was reworked, made much more difficult, and renamed "The Mathematics Subject Test (Rescaled)." It is now considered by many to be among the hardest of the GRE subject exams. One contributing factor to this is that there is a shortage of practice exams available, as the test in its current format has only been around since 2001.
Tests take place each school season one Saturday in each of October, November, and April. Registration for each season of testing begins in July.

3. An Intelligence Quotient or IQ

Is a score derived from one of several different standardized tests attempting to measure intelligence. The term "IQ," a calque of the German Intelligenz- Quotient, was coined by the German psychologist William Stern in 1912 as a proposed method of scoring early modern children's intelligence tests such as those developed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in the early 20th Century. Although the term "IQ" is still in common use, the scoring of modern IQ tests such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale is now based on a projection of the subject's measured rank on the Gaussian bell curve with a center value (average IQ) of 100, and a standard deviation of 15, although different tests may have different standard deviations.
IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as morbidity and mortality, parental social status, and to a substantial degree, parental IQ. While its inheritance has been investigated for nearly a century, controversy remains as to how much is inheritable, and the mechanisms of inheritance are still a matter of some debate.
IQ scores are used in many contexts: as predictors of educational achievement or special needs, by social scientists who study the distribution of IQ scores in populations and the relationships between IQ score and other variables, and as predictors of job performance and income.
The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising at an average rate of three points per decade since the early 20th century with most of the increase in the lower half of the IQ range: a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is disputed whether these changes in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities, or merely methodological problems with past or present testing.

4. Emotional Intelligence (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ)

Describes a concept that involves the ability, capacity, skill or (in the case of the trait EI model) a self-perceived ability, to identify, assess, and manage the emotions of one's self, of others, and of groups. Because it is a relatively new area of psychological research, the definition of the concept is still being developed.

5. The Test of English as a Foreign Language (or TOEFL, pronounced "toe-full")

Evaluates the potential success of an individual to use and understand academic English at a college level. It is required for non-native applicants at many English-speaking colleges and universities. Additionally, institutions such as government agencies, businesses, or scholarship programs may require this test. A TOEFL score is valid for two years and then is deleted from the official database. Colleges and universities usually consider only the most recent TOEFL score.
The TOEFL test is a registered trademark of Educational Testing Service (ETS) and is administered worldwide. The test was first administered in 1964 and has since been taken by nearly 20 million students.

6. Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC)
The Test of English for International Communication™ (TOEIC) is "an English language test designed specifically to measure the everyday English skills of people working in an international environment. "
It is a two-hour multiple-choice test consisting of 200 questions divided into 100 questions each in listening comprehension and reading comprehension. Each candidate receives independent scores for written and oral comprehension on a scale from 5 to 495 points. The total score adds up to a scale from 10 to 990 points. The TOEIC certificate exists in five colours, corresponding to achieved results :
orange (10-215)
brown (220-465)
green (470-725)
blue (730-855)
gold (860-990)

7. IELTS 'International English Language Testing System

Is an international standardized test of English language proficiency. It is jointly managed by University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, the British Council and IDP Education Australia, and was established in 1989.
There are two versions of the IELTS: the Academic Version and the General Training Version:
The Academic Version is intended for those who want to enroll in universities and other institutions of higher education and for professionals such as medical doctors and nurses who want to study or practice in an English-speaking country.
The General Training Version is intended for those planning to undertake non-academic training or to gain work experience, or for immigration purposes.
It is generally acknowledged that the reading and writing tests for the Academic Version are more difficult than those for the General Training Version, due to the differences in the level of intellectual and academic rig our between the two versions.
IELTS is accepted by most Australian, British, Canadian, Irish, New Zealand and South African academic institutions, over 2,000 academic institutions in the United States, and various professional organizations. It is also a requirement for immigration to Australia and Canada. This has been criticized in Canada, because the English accents employed in the Listening section of the IELTS are far removed from typical Canadian accents.
An IELTS result or Test Report Form (TRF - see below) is valid for two years.
In 2007, IELTS tested over a million candidates in a single 12-month period for the first time ever, making it the world's most popular English language test for higher education and immigration.

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